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Anomalistic psychology
In parapsychology, anomalistic psychology is the study of human behaviour and experience connected with what is often called the paranormal, without the assumption that there is anything paranormal involved. Overview (1835-1918) an early researcher in anomalistic psychology.]] According to anomalistic psychology, paranormal phenomena have naturalistic explanations resulting from psychological and physical factors which have sometimes given the impression of paranormal activity to some people, in fact, where there have been none.Nicola Holt, Christine Simmonds-Moore, David Luke, Christopher French. (2012). Anomalistic Psychology (Palgrave Insights in Psychology). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0230301504 The phrase "Anomalistic Psychology" was a term first suggested by the psychologists Leonard Zusne and Warren Jones in their book Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking (1989) which systematically treats phenomena of human consciousness and behaviors that may appear to violate the laws of nature when they actually do not.Leonard Zusne, Warren H. Jones. (1989). Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0805805086 Anomalistic psychology has a long history. The physician John Ferriar wrote An Essay Towards a Theory of Apparitions in 1813 in which he argued that sightings of ghosts were the result of optical illusions. Later the French physician Alexandre Jacques François Brière de Boismont published On Hallucinations: Or, the Rational History of Apparitions, Dreams, Ecstasy, Magnetism, and Somnambulism in 1845 in which he claimed sightings of ghosts were the result of hallucinations.Shane McCorristine. (2010). Spectres of the Self: Thinking About Ghosts and Ghost-Seeing in England, 1750-1920. Cambridge University Press. pp. 44-56. ISBN 978-0521747967 William Benjamin Carpenter in his book Mesmerism, Spiritualism, Etc: Historically and Scientifically Considered (1877) wrote Spiritualist practices could be explained by fraud, delusion, hypnotism and suggestion.William Benjamin Carpenter. (1877). Mesmerism, Spiritualism, Etc: Historically and Scientifically Considered. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1108027397 The British psychiatrist Henry Maudsley in Natural Causes and Supernatural Seemings (1886) wrote that so-called supernatural experiences could be explained in terms of disorders of the mind and were simply "malobservations and misinterpretations of nature".Ivan Leudar, Philip Thomas. (2000). Voices of Reason, Voices of Insanity: Studies of Verbal Hallucinations. Routledge. pp. 106-107. ISBN 978-0415147873 Lionel Weatherly a psychiatrist and John Nevil Maskelyne a magician wrote The Supernatural? (1891) which offered rational explanations for apparitions, paranormal and religious experiences and Spiritualism.Lionel Weatherly, John Nevil Maskelyne. (2011). The Supernatural? (Cambridge Library Collection - Spiritualism and Esoteric Knowledge). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1108029193 Albert Moll in his book Christian Science, Medicine, and Occultism (1902) wrote that practices such as Christian Science, Spiritualism and occultism were the result of fraud and hypnotic suggestion. Moll argued that suggestion explained the cures of Christian Science, as well as the apparently supernatural rapport between magnetisers and their somnambulists. He wrote that fraud and hypnotism could explain mediumistic phenomena.Wolffram, Heather. (2012). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3381525/ ‘Trick’, ‘Manipulation’ and ‘Farce’: Albert Moll’s Critique of Occultism]. Medical History 56(2): 277-295. Karl Jaspers in his book General Psychopathology (1913) stated that all paranormal phenomena are manifestations of psychiatric symptoms.Karl Jaspers. (1913). General Psychopathology. Baltimore. MD: Johns Hopkins. ISBN 978-0801858154 Other scientists who studied anomalistic psychology include Millais Culpin, Joseph Jastrow, Charles Arthur Mercier and Ivor Lloyd Tuckett. The Canadian psychologist Graham Reed published a major work on the subject The Psychology of Anomalous Experience (1972).Graham Reed. (1972). The Psychology of Anomalous Experience: A Cognitive Approach. Hutchinson University Library. ISBN 978-0091132408 Various psychological publications have explained in detail how reported paranormal phenomena such as mediumship, precognition, out-of-body experiences and psychics can be explained by psychological factors without recourse to the supernatural. Researchers involved with anomalistic psychology try to provide plausible non-paranormal accounts, supported by empirical evidence, of how psychological and physical factors might combine to give the impression of paranormal activity when there had been none. Apart from deception or self-deception such explanations might involve cognitive biases, anomalous psychological states, dissociative states, hallucinations, personality factors, developmental issues and the nature of memory.What is Anomalistic Psychology? founder of the Anomalistic Psychology Research Unit.]] The psychologist David Marks wrote that paranormal phenomena can be explained by magical thinking, mental imagery, subjective validation, coincidence, hidden causes, and fraud.Marks, David. (1988). The psychology of paranormal beliefs. Experientia, 44, 332–337. Robert Baker wrote that many paranormal phenomena can be explained via psychological effects such as hallucinations, sleep paralysis and hidden memories, a phenomenon in which experiences that originally make little conscious impression are filed away in the brain to be suddenly remembered later in an altered form.Robert Baker. (1996). Hidden Memories: Voices and Visions from Within. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1573920940 Massimo Polidoro a professor of Anomalistic Psychology at the University of Milano Bicocca, Italy teaches the course "Scientific Method, Pseudoscience and Anomalistic Psychology".Biography of Massimo Polidoro Another notable researcher is the British psychologist Chris French who set up the Anomalistic Psychology Research Unit (APRU) in the Department of Psychology at Goldsmiths, University of London.Anomalistic psychology: What is it and why bother? by Chris French Hauntings A psychological study (Klemperer, 1992) of ghosts wrote that visions of ghosts may arise from hypnagogic hallucinations ("waking dreams" which are experienced in the transitional states to and from sleep).Klemperer, Frances. (1992). [http://pubmedcentralcanada.ca/pmcc/articles/PMC1884722/pdf/bmj00105-0010.pdf Ghosts, Visions, And Voices: Sometimes Simply Perceptual Mistakes]. BMJ: British Medical Journal , Vol. 305, No. 6868 (Dec. 19 - 26), pp. 1518-1519. In an experiment (Lange and Houran, 1997) 22 subjects visited five areas of a performance theatre and were asked to notice the environment. Half of the subjects were informed that the locations they were in were haunted, whilst the other half were told that the building was simply under renovation. The subjects' perceptions in both groups were recorded to an experiential questionnaire which contained 10 subscales related to psychological and physiological perceptions. The results showed more intense perceptual experiences on nine of the ten subscales from the group that was told the building was haunted which has indicated that demand characteristics alone can stimulate paranormal experiences.Lange, R., and J. Houran. (1997). Context-induced paranormal experiences: Support for Houran and Lange's model of haunting phenomena. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 84, 1455-1458. A study (Lange and Houran, 1998) suggested that poltergeist experiences are delusions "resulting from the affective and cognitive dynamics of percipients' interpretation of ambiguous stimuli".Lange, R., Houran, J. (1998). Delusions of the paranormal: A haunting question of perception. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186 (10), 637–645. Two experiments into alleged hauntings (Wiseman et al. 2003) discovered that the data supported the "notion that people consistently report unusual experiences in ‘haunted’ areas because of environmental factors, which may differ across locations." Some of these factors included "the variance of local magnetic Žfields, size of location and lighting level stimuli of which witnesses may not be consciously aware".Wiseman, R., C. Watt, P. Stevens, et al. (2003). [http://www.richardwiseman.com/resources/BJP-hauntings.pdf An investigation into alleged “hauntings”]. British Journal of Psychology, 94: 195-211. Mediumship Research and empirical evidence from psychology for over a hundred years has revealed that where there is not fraud, mediumship and Spiritualistic practices can be explained by psychological factors. Trance mediumship which is claimed by the Spiritualists to be caused by discarnate spirits speaking through the medium have been proven in cases to be alternate personalities from the medium's subconscious mind.Millais Culpin. (1920). Spiritualism and the New Psychology, an Explanation of Spiritualist Phenomena and Beliefs in Terms of Modern Knowledge. Kennelly Press. ISBN 978-1446056516 The medium may obtain information about their sitters by secretly eavesdropping on sitter's conversations or searching telephone directories, the internet and newspapers before the sittings.Ian Rowland. (1998). The Full Facts Book of Cold Reading. London, England: Ian Roland. ISBN 978-0955847608 Mediums are known for employing a technique called cold reading and obtain information from the sitter's behavior, clothing, posture, and jewellery.Brad Clark (2002). Spiritualism. pp. 220-226 in Michael Shermer. The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1576076538Jonathan Smith. (2009). Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal: A Critical Thinker's Toolkit. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 141-241. ISBN 978-1405181228 In a series of fake seance experiments (Wiseman et al. 2003) paranormal believers and disbelievers were suggested by an actor that a table was levitating when, in fact, it remained stationary. After the seance, approximately one third of the participants incorrectly reported that the table had moved. The results showed a greater percentage of believers reporting that the table had moved. In another experiment the believers had also reported that a handbell had moved when it had remained stationary and expressed their belief that the fake seances contained genuine paranormal phenomena. The experiments strongly supported the notion that in the seance room, believers are more suggestible than disbelievers for suggestions that are consistent with their belief in paranormal phenomena.Wiseman, R., Greening, E., and Smith, M. (2003). [https://uhra.herts.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/2299/2278/1/103252.pdf Belief in the paranormal and suggestion in the seance room]. British Journal of Psychology, 94 (3): 285-297. An experiment (O'Keeffe and Wiseman, 2005) involving 5 mediums found no evidence to support the notion that the mediums under controlled conditions were able to demonstrate paranormal or mediumistic ability.O'Keeffe, C. & Wiseman, R. (2005). [http://www.richardwiseman.com/resources/MediumBJP.pdf Testing alleged mediumship: Methods and results]. British Journal of Psychology, Vol. 96, 165-179. Paranormal healing A study in the British Medical Journal (Rose, 1954) investigated spiritual healing, therapeutic touch and faith healing. In a hundred cases that was investigated no single case revealed that the healer's intervention alone resulted in any improvement or cure of a measurable organic disability.Louis Rose. (1954). Some Aspects Of Paranormal Healing. British Medical Journal, Vol. 2, No. 4900, pp. 1329-1332. A trial was carried out by a group of scientists (Beutler, 1988) to see whether three treatment groups, paranormal laying on of hands, paranormal healing at a distance and no paranormal healing to test if they might reduce blood pressure. The data did not reveal any paranormal effects as no significant differences between the three treatment groups were found. The results concluded that the fall in blood pressure in all three of the groups was caused by the psychosocial approach and the placebo effect of the trial itself.Beutler, J., Attevelt, J., Schouten, S., Faber, J., Mees, E., & Geijskes, G. (1988). Paranormal healing and hypertension. British Medical Journal, 296, 1491-1494. One form of paranormal healing known as psychic surgery has been discovered to be the result of sleight of hand tricks. Psychic surgeons pretend to reach into the patient's body but the skin is never punctured, there are no scars and the blood is released from packets hidden in the surgeon's hands.Randy Moore. (1992). Debunking the Paranormal: We Should Teach Critical Thinking as a Necessity for Living, Not Just as a Tool for Science. The American Biology Teacher, Vol. 54, No. 1, pp. 4-9. Psychokinesis Cognitive biases have been found in some cases of psychokinesis. In an investigation of 380 studies a group of psychologists (Bösch et al. 2006) have written an meta-analysis on the subject. In their paper they wrote "statistical significance of the overall database provides no directive as to whether the phenomenon is genuine or not" and came to the conclusion that "publication bias appears to be the easiest and most encompassing explanation for the primary findings of the meta-analysis."Bösch, H., Steinkamp, F., Boller, E. (2006). [http://www.ebo.de/publikationen/pk_ma.pdf Examining Psychokinesis: The Interaction of Human Intention with Random Number Generators. A Meta-Analysis Examining Psychokinesis: The Interaction of Human Intention with. Random Number Generators. A Meta-Analysis]. Psychological Bulletin, 132 (4): 497–523. According to Richard Wiseman there are a number of ways for faking psychokinetic metal bending (PKMB) these include switching straight objects for pre-bent duplicates, the concealed application of force, and secretly inducing metallic fractures. Research has also suggested that (PKMB) effects can be created by verbal suggestion. On this subject (Harris, 1985) wrote: In an experimental study (Wiseman and Greening, 2005) two groups of participants were shown a videotape in which a fake psychic placed a bent key on a table. Participants in the first group heard the fake psychic suggest that the key was continuing to bend when it had remained stationary, whilst those in the second group did not. The results revealed that participants from the first group reported significantly more movement of the key than the second group. The findings were replicated in another study. The experiments had demonstrated that "testimony for PKMB after effects can be created by verbal suggestion, and therefore the testimony from individuals who have observed allegedly genuine demonstrations of such effects should not be seen as strong evidence in support of the paranormal".Wiseman, R. & Greening, E. (2005). [http://www.richardwiseman.com/resources/BJP-key.pdf It's still bending': verbal suggestion and alleged psychokinetic ability]. British Journal of Psychology, 96, 115-127. Remote viewing Research has suggested that in cases the participants of remote viewing experiments are influenced by subjective validation, a process through which correspondences are perceived between stimuli that are in fact associated purely randomly. Sensory cues have also occurred in remote viewing experiments.Marks, David. (1981). Sensory cues invalidate remote viewing experiments. Nature 292: 177. Telepathy Research has discovered that in some cases telepathy can be explained by a covariation bias. In an experiment (Schienle et al. 1996) 22 believers and 20 skeptics were asked to judge the covariation between transmitted symbols and the corresponding feedback given by a receiver. According to the results the believers overestimated the number of successful transmissions whilst the skeptics made accurate hit judgments.Schienle, A., Vaitl, D., and Stark, R. (1996). Covariation bias and paranormal belief. Psychological Reports, 78, 291-305. The results from another telepathy experiment involving 48 undergraduate college students (Rudski, 2002) were explained by hindsight and confirmation biases.Rudski, J. M. (2002). Hindsight and confirmation biases in an exercise in telepathy. Psychological Reports, 91, 899–906. Relationship with parapsychology Anomalistic psychology is sometimes described as a sub-field of parapsychology, however, anomalistic psychology rejects the paranormal claims of parapsychology. According to Chris French: Anomalistic psychology has been reported to be on the rise. It is now offered as an option on many psychology degree programmes and is also an option on the A2 psychology syllabus in the UK.The rise of anomalistic psychology – and the fall of parapsychology? See also *Australian Sheep-Goat Scale *Psychology of Paranormal Belief References Further reading *Gustav Jahoda. (1974). The Psychology of Superstition. Jason Aronson, Inc. Publisher. ISBN 978-0876681855 *David Marks. (2000). The Psychology of the Psychic. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1573927987 *Andrew Neher. (2011). Paranormal and Transcendental Experience: A Psychological Examination. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486261676 *John Schumaker. (1990). Wings of Illusion: The Origin, Nature and Future of Paranormal Belief. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-0879756246 External links * What is Anomalistic Psychology? * Prof Chris French explains anomalistic psychology on Pulse Project Expert Explanations. Category:Anomalistic psychology Category:Branches of psychology CAtegory:Parapsychology Category:Scientific method Category:Scientific skepticism